Glossary Of Social Sciences

20 Social Sciences terms

Like I said in the post ''About Me'', my name is Mathieu Picard. Since 2017, I have been studying Social Sciences. This glossary was made to help some people to understand certain words associated to this branch of study.

Agency: Noun; Agency is the capacity of an actor to act in a given environment. The capacity to act does not at first imply a specific moral dimension to the ability to make the choice to act, and moral agency is therefore a distinct concept. In sociology, an agent is an individual engaging with the social structure. Notably, though, the primacy of social structure vs. individual capacity with regard to people actions is debated within sociology. This debate concerns, at least partly, the level of reflexivity an agent may possess. Agency may either be classified as unconscious, involuntary behavior, or purposeful, goal directed activity (intentional action). An agent typically has some sort of immediate awareness of their physical activity and the goals that the activity is aimed at realizing. In ‘goal directed action’ an agent implements a kind of direct control or guidance over their own behavior.; Example: Even if it is illegal to steal money, someone can decide to steal it anyway, because, for him, this is acceptable.; fr: Agentivité
Aversion to uncertainty: Phrase; In psychology, aversion to uncertainty is a form of risk aversion resulting in the fear, quite widespread, that in case of uncertainty (however general situation in life and in society, as in any system dynamic) there is more to lose than to gain.; Example: It has been observed in practice that with regard to the important issues for the individual to commit resources to reduce his uncertainty. For example, purchase of armored doors, underwriting of insurance contracts.; fr: Aversion à l'incertitude
Cognitive anthropology: Phrase; Cognitive anthropology is an approach within cultural anthropology and biological anthropology in which scholars seek to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences (especially experimental psychology and cognitive psychology) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge, in the sense of what they think subconsciously, changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.; Example: Bernard Arcand, in his book named ''Le Jaguar et le Tamanoir'', the author use his research, from the past to the present, to explain how pornography is a mirror of our modernity.; fr: Anthropologie cognitive
Critical theory: Phrase; Critical theory is the reflective assessment and critique of society and culture by applying knowledge from the Social Sciences and the humanities to reveal and challenge power structures. Critical theory has origins in sociology and also in literary criticism.; Example: The sociologist Max Horkheimer described a theory as critical insofar as it seeks "to liberate human beings from the circumstances that enslave them."; fr: Théorie critique
Differential psychology: Phrase; Differential psychology studies the ways in which individuals differ in their behavior and the processes that underlie it. This is a discipline that develops classifications (taxonomies) of psychological individual differences. This is distinguished from other aspects of psychology in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists often study groups, or attempt to discover general psychological processes that apply to all individuals.; Example: In evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy, the mean performance of the therapy in one treatment group might be compared to the mean effectiveness of a placebo (or a well-known therapy) in a second, control group. In this context, differences between individuals in their reaction to the experimental and control manipulations are actually treated as errors rather than as interesting phenomena to study.; fr: Psychologie différentielle
Epistemology: Noun; Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. It is the study of the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief. Much debate in epistemology centers on four areas: the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to such concepts as truth, belief, and justification, various problems of skepticism, the sources and scope of knowledge and justified belief, and the criteria for knowledge and justification.; Example: Epistemology addresses such questions as "What makes justified beliefs justified?", "What does it mean to say that we know something?", and fundamentally "How do we know that we know?"; fr: Épistémologie
Ethnomethodology: Noun; Ethnomethodology is the study of how social order is produced in and through processes of social interaction. It generally seeks to provide an alternative to mainstream sociological approaches. In its most radical form, it poses a challenge to the Social Sciences as a whole. Its early investigations led to the founding of conversation analysis, which has found its own place as an accepted discipline within the academy.; fr: Ethnométhodologie
Evolutionary psychology: Phrase; Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological structure from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations – that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection in human evolution. Adaptationist thinking about physiological mechanisms, such as the heart, lungs, and immune system, is common in evolutionary biology. Some evolutionary psychologists apply the same thinking to psychology, arguing that the modularity of mind is similar to that of the body and with different modular adaptations serving different functions. Evolutionary psychologists argue that much of the human behaviors is the output of psychological adaptations that evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. Evolutionary psychology is not simply a sub discipline of psychology but its evolutionary theory can provide a foundational, meta-theoretical framework that integrates the entire field of psychology in the same way evolutionary biology has for biology. Evolutionary psychologists hold that behaviors or traits that occur universally in all cultures are good candidates for evolutionary adaptations including the abilities to infer others' emotions, discern kin from non-kin, identify and prefer healthier mates, and cooperate with others. There have been studies of human social behaviour related to infanticide, intelligence, marriage patterns, promiscuity, perception of beauty, bride price, and parental investment, with impressive findings. The theories and findings of evolutionary psychology have applications in many fields, including economics, environment, health, law, management, psychiatry, politics, and literature. Criticism of evolutionary psychology involves questions of testability, cognitive and evolutionary assumptions (such as modular functioning of the brain, and large uncertainty about the ancestral environment), importance of non-genetic and non-adaptive explanations, as well as political and ethical issues due to interpretations of research results.; Example: Human behavioral ecologists present and defend explanatory hypotheses about human behavior that do not appeal to psychological mechanisms; fr: Psychologie évolutionniste
Factor analysis: Phrase; Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors. For example, it is possible that variations in six observed variables mainly reflect the variations in two unobserved (underlying) variables. Factor analysis searches for such joint variations in response to unobserved latent variables. The observed variables are modeled as linear combinations of the potential factors, plus "error" terms. Factor analysis aims to find independent latent variables. The theory behind factor analytic methods is that the information gained about the interdependencies between observed variables can be used later to reduce the set of variables in a data set. Factor analysis is commonly used in biology, psychometrics, personality theories, marketing, product management, operations research, and finance. It may help to deal with data sets where there are large numbers of observed variables that are thought to reflect a smaller number of underlying/latent variables. It is one of the most commonly used inter-dependency techniques and is used when the relevant set of variables shows a systematic inter-dependence and the objective is to find out the latent factors that create a commonality.; Example: Suppose a psychologist has the hypothesis that there are two kinds of intelligence, "verbal intelligence" and "mathematical intelligence", neither of which is directly observed. Evidence for the hypothesis is sought in the examination scores from each of 10 different academic fields of 1000 students. If each student is chosen randomly from a large population, then each student's 10 scores are random variables. The psychologist's hypothesis may say that for each of the 10 academic fields, the score averaged over the group of all students who share some common pair of values for verbal and mathematical knowledge is some constant times their level of verbal intelligence plus other constant times their level of mathematical intelligence, i.e., it is a combination of those two "factors". The numbers for a particular subject, by which the two kinds of intelligence are multiplied to obtain the expected score, are posited by the hypothesis to be the same for a good deal of intelligence level pairs, and are called "factor loading" for this subject. For example, the hypothesis may hold that the predicted average student's aptitude in the field of astronomy is {10 × the student's verbal intelligence} + {6 × the student's mathematical intelligence}. The numbers 10 and 6 are the factor loadings associated with astronomy. Other academic subjects may have different factor loadings. Two students assumed to have identical degrees of the latent, unmeasured traits of verbal and mathematical intelligence may have different measured aptitudes in astronomy because individual aptitudes differ from average aptitudes (predicted above) and because of measurement error itself. Such differences make up what is collectively called the "error" — a statistical term that means the amount by which an individual, as measured, differs from what is average for or predicted by his or her levels of intelligence (see errors and residuals in statistics). The observable data that go into factor analysis would be 10 scores of each of the 1000 students, a total of 10.000 numbers. The factor loadings and levels of the two kinds of intelligence of each student must be inferred from the data.; fr: Analyse factorielle
Forensic psychology: Phrase; Forensic psychology is the application of psychological knowledge and methods to legal questions. It requires an understanding of fundamental legal principles, particularly with regard to expert witness testimony and the specific content area of concern (e.g., competence to stand trial, child custody and visitation, or workplace discrimination), as well as relevant jurisdictional considerations (e.g., in the United States, the definition of insanity in criminal trials differs from state to state) in order to be able to communicate effectively with judges, attorneys, and other legal professionals. An important skill for many forensic psychologists is the ability to testify in court as an expert witness, reformulating psychological findings into the legal language of the courtroom, providing information to legal personnel in a way that can be understood. Further, in order to be a credible witness, the forensic psychologist must understand the philosophy, rules, and standards of the judicial system. Primarily, they must understand the adversarial system. There are also rules about hearsay evidence and most importantly, the exclusionary rule. Lack of a firm grasp of these procedures will result in the forensic psychologist losing credibility in the courtroom. A forensic psychologist can be trained in clinical, social, organizational, or any other branch of psychology. Generally, a forensic psychologist is designated as an expert in a specific field of study.; Example: Forensic neuropsychologists are generally asked to appear as expert witnesses in court to discuss cases that involve purported brain damage.; fr: Psychologie légale
Gestalt psychology: Noun; Gestalt psychologists emphasized that organisms perceive entire patterns or configurations, not merely individual components. The view is sometimes summarized using the adage, "the whole is more than the sum of its parts." Gestalt principles, proximity, similarity, figure-ground, continuity, closure, and connection, determine how humans perceive visuals in connection with different objects and environments.; Example: The principle of closure states that when we look at a complex arrangement of visual elements, we tend to look for a single, recognizable pattern. In other words, when you see an image that has missing parts, your brain will fill in the blanks and make a complete image so you can still recognize the pattern. The image at the top is a great example that follows the principle of closure. Your brain will automatically think of a triangle, but this is just three white Pac-man with a black screen.; fr: Psychologie de la forme, théorie de la Gestalt ou gestaltisme.
Intercultural competence: Phrase; Intercultural competence is a range of cognitive, affective, and behavioural skills that lead to effective and appropriate communication with people of other cultures. Effective intercultural communication relates to behaviors that culminate with the accomplishment of the desired goals of the interaction and all parties involved in the situation. Appropriate intercultural communication includes behaviors that suit the expectations of a specific culture, the characteristics of the situation, and the level of the relationship between the parties involved in the situation. It also takes into consideration one's own cultural norms and the best appropriate, comfortable compromise between the different cultural norms.; Example: The thumbs up means in South America "everything is in order", in central Europe it also has the meaning of "one". In Iran, the thumb up is an inappropriate gesture, equivalent to the finger of honor with the middle finger in most other cultures.; fr: Médiation interculturelle
Phenomenology sociology: Noun; Phenomenology within sociology (Phenomenological sociology) is the study of the formal structures of concrete social existence as made available in and through the analytical description of acts of intentional consciousness. The task of phenomenological sociology, like that of every other phenomenological investigation, is to account for, or describe, the formal structures of this object of investigation in terms of subjectivity, as an object-constituted-in-and-for-consciousness. That which makes such a description different from the "naive" subjective descriptions of the man in the street, or those of the traditional social scientist, both operating in the natural attitude of everyday life, is the utilization of phenomenological methods.; Example: People's perceptions of social experience vary depending on one's point of view, context and position.; fr: Phénoménologie sociologique
Positive psychology: Phrase; Positive psychology is the study of the "good life", or the positive aspects of the human experience that make life worth living. As an art, it focuses on both individual and societal well-being. Positive psychology began as a domain of psychology in 1998 when Martin Seligman chose it as the theme for his term as president of the American Psychological Association. It is a reaction against psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which have focused on "mental illness", meanwhile emphasizing maladaptive behavior and negative thinking. It builds further on the humanistic movement, which encouraged an emphasis on happiness, well-being, and positivism, thus creating the foundation for what is now known as positive psychology.; Example: See the positive sides of event.; fr: Psychologie positive
Psycho-oncology: Noun; Psycho-oncology is an interdisciplinary field at the intersection of physical, psychological, social, and behavioral aspects of the cancer experience for both patients and caregivers. Also known as Psychiatric Oncology or Psychosocial Oncology, researchers and practitioners in the field are concerned with aspects of individuals' experience with cancer beyond medical treatment, and across the cancer trajectory, including at diagnosis, during treatment, transitioning to and throughout survivorship, and approaching the end-of-life. Psycho-oncology deals with psychological reactions to the experience of cancer, the behavioral component of coping with cancer as well as health behavior change including preventive medicine, and social factors that are associated with diagnosis and treatment of cancer, including communication with providers and loved ones and social support. In addition, research related to the influence of psychosocial factors on biological disease-related processes has burgeoned over the past two decades. Many research takes a biopsychosocial approach to account for the interplay between biological, psychological, and social factors in coping with cancer. The integration of psycho-oncology into routine oncologic care represents a major step forward in terms of care for the whole patient.; fr: Psycho-oncologie
Psycholinguistics: Noun and adjective; Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the interrelation between linguistic factors and psychological aspects. The field is concerned with psychological and neurological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. The discipline is mainly concerned with the mechanisms in which languages are processed and represented in the mind and brain. Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, and information science to study how the mind-brain processes language, and less so the known processes of Social Sciences, human development, communication theories and infant development, among others. There are a number of sub-disciplines with non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain; for example, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own right. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were found in philosophical and educational fields, due mainly to their location in departments other than applied sciences (e.g., cohesive data on how the human brain functioned). Psycholinguistics is concerned with the cognitive faculties and processes that are necessary in order for grammatical forms of language to be produced from a mental grammar and the lexicon. It is also concerned with the perception of these constructions by a listener. Developmental psycholinguistics, as a branch of psycholinguistics, concerns itself with the child's ability to learn language.; fr: Psycholinguistique
Psychology of art: Phrase; The psychology of art is an interdisciplinary field that studies the perception, cognition and characteristics of art and its production. For the use of art materials as a form of psychotherapy, see has art therapy. The psychology of art is related to architectural psychology and environmental psychology.; fr: Psychologie de l'art
Relational sociology: Phrase; Relational sociology is a collection of sociological theories that emphasize relationalism over substantivalism in explanations and interpretations of social phenomena.; Example: The theory of Identity and Control by Harrison C. White.; fr: Interactionnisme structural
Suicidology: Noun; Suicidology is the scientific study of suicidal behaviour, the causes of suicidalness and suicide prevention. There are many fields and disciplines involved with suicidology, the two primary ones being psychology and sociology. Suicide is largely preventable with the right actions, knowledge about suicide, and a change in society's view of suicide to make it more acceptable to talk about suicide.; fr: Suicidologie
Transpersonal psychology: Phrase; Transpersonal psychology is a sub-field or school of psychology that integrates the spiritual and transcendent aspects of the human experience with the framework of modern psychology. It is also possible to define it as a "spiritual psychology". The transpersonal is defined as "experiences in which the sense of identity or self extends beyond (trans) the individual or personal to encompass wider aspects of humankind, life, psyche or cosmos". It has also been defined as "development beyond conventional, personal or individual levels". Issues considered in transpersonal psychology include spiritual self-development, self beyond the ego, peak experiences, mystical experiences, systemic trance, spiritual crises, spiritual evolution, religious conversion, altered states of consciousness, spiritual practices, and other sublime and/or unusually expanded experiences of living. The discipline attempts to describe and integrate spiritual experience within modern psychological theory and to formulate new theory to encompass such experience.; Example: Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, and self-actualization. To attend higher needs, you have to satisfy lower needs. It is a progressive evolution. If one of your lower needs are not satisfied, you will downgrade to this level of needs.; fr: Psychologie transpersonnelle